https://www.um.edu.mt/library/oar/handle/123456789/2759 2026-09-11T09:45:43Z https://www.um.edu.mt/library/oar/handle/123456789/148916 Title: How norms depend on the presence and status of observers : the relational contingency of everyday behaviors in 90 societies Authors: Simpson, Brent; Eriksson, Kimmo; Vartanova, Irina; Strimling, Pontus; Merchan Tamayo, J. Paola; Abdi, Khalid Ahmed; Ad, Neta; Aldashev, Alisher; Mohammad Ali, Habib; Aliyev, Khatai; Alrefaee, Yasser; Alvarado Ortiz, Alberth Estuardo; Andersson, Per A.; Andrighetto, Giulia; Arikan, Gizem; Aruta, John Jamir Benzon R.; Lutete Ayikwa, Christian; Baños-Chaparro, Jonatan; Barrera, Davide; Batkeyev, Birzhan; Batool, Azma; Berezina, Elizaveta; Bimina, Stéphanie Ngandu; Björnstjerna, Marie; Blumen, Sheyla; Boski, Paweł; Boštjančič, Eva; Boum II, Yap; Briguglio, Marie; Thu Bui, Huyen Thi; Caycho-Rodríguez, Tomás; Chen, Yanyan; Chiweshe, Manase Kudzai; Choi, HoonSeok; Contreras-Ibáñez, Carlos C.; Čorkalo, Dinka; Cruz-Torres, Christian E.; Czakó, Andrea; de Zoysa, Piyanjali; Demetrovics, Zsolt; Dinić, Bojana M.; Drače, Saša; El-Haddad, Rita W.; Engelmann, Jan B.; Pérez, Ignacio Escudero; Euh, Hyun; Fang, Xia; Frank, Celine; Freidin, Esteban; Fulop, Marta; Gamsakhurdia, Vladimer; García Jiménez, Mauro Alberto; Gardarsdottir, Ragna B.; Gavreliuc, Alin; Hugues D. Gill, Colin Mathew; Gjoneska, Biljana; Glöckner, Andreas; Graf, Sylvie; Grigoryan, Ani; Growiec, Katarzyna; Haas, Brian W.; Haddock, Geoffrey; Hadjisolomou, Stavros P.; Hadžiahmetović, Nina; Mohammad Ali, Mohammad Hosein Haji; Hakoköngäs, Eemeli; Halama, Peter; Hapunda, Given; Hartanto, Andree; Hazrati, Mahsa; Herbas-Torrico, Boris Christian; Holka, Szilárd; Hřebíčková, Martina; Hunter, John A.; Ibikounle, Moudachirou; Ilisko, Dzintra; Hjördísar Jónsdóttir, Harpa Lind; Kaminskiene, Zivile; Kapoor, Hansika; Kapović, Iva; Karim, Gassemi; Kawakami, Kerry; Khachatryan, Narine; Kirschner, Julian B.; Kiruja, Jonah; Kiyonari, Toko; Kohút, Michal; Kousar, Shazia; Krasniqi, Besnik; Landa-Blanco, Miguel; Landon, Barbara; Lep, Žan; Leslie, Lisa M.; Li, Yang; Liik, Kadi; Lin, Ming-Jen; Lobos Rivera, Marlon Elías; López-López, Wilson; Maloku, Edona; Mandal, Mohona; Manhique, Bernardo Ananias; Mbende, Nathan Mpeti; Mendes Teixeira, Maria Luisa; Mohammed, Linda Lila; Moore, Schontal N.; Moraligil, Bahar; Muradzada, Nijat; Nanda, Herwin; Nastina, Ekaterina; Nejat, Pegah; Nettle, Daniel; Nipassa, Orlando Julio Andre; Noe-Grijalva, Martin; Ntampaka, Pie; Ntone, Rodrigue; Nussinson, Ravit; Oljača, Milan; Onyedire, Nneoma G.; Onyishi, Ike E.; Panagiotopoulou, Penny; Parvez, Md. Shahin; Pasin, Gian Luca; Pedović, Ivana; Pérez de León, Pablo; Perez Floriano, Lorena R.; Persson, Minna; Pop-Jordanov, Nada; Portillo, Jose Roberto; Potang, Angela; Quesada-Román, Adolfo; Raver, Jana L.; Rodrigues, Ricardo B.; Rodríguez-Romero, Juan Diego; Romanò, Sara; Ross, Robert M.; Rosun, Nachita; Sadiković, Selka; San Martin, Alvaro; Smederevac, Snežana; Smith, Sarah Jane; Soboleva, Natalia; Sonessa, Daniel Erena; Stanley, Samantha K.; Stoyanova, Kristina; Stoyanov, Drozdstoy; Takemura, Kosuke; Thøgersen, John; Tiliouine, Habib; Tung, Hans; Ulambayar, Tungalag; Uzdavinyte, Elze Marija; Waechter, Randall; Wu, Junhui; Yambiyo, Brice Martial; Yankson, Eric; Yeh, Kuang-Hui; Van Lange, Paul A. M. Abstract: Norms are fundamental to social life, but basic questions about how they are affected by social context remain. Specifically, how do normative constraints depend on the presence and status of observers, and how do such relational contingencies vary across cultures? Using data from more than 25,000 individuals across 90 societies, we test several hypotheses linking normative constraints on everyday behaviors (like arguing, laughing, cursing, kissing, and crying), to the presence and status of observers. We find that behaviors widely viewed as appropriate in private become more constrained in the presence of others (an observer effect), and even more so when those others are higher in status (a status effect). Both observer and status effects are culturally universal, but the observer effect shows more variation across cultures. In particular, we find that observer effects are larger in societies that emphasize individualizing moral foundations, that is, avoiding harm and unfairness to others, because these societies are more permissive of actions when others are not around. The relative stability of status effects across cultural contexts suggests a universal tendency to defer in social hierarchies. 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