The history of production and exchange of blue and white porcelain in China, the Middle East, and Europe

Abstract

The term “fine China” frequently evokes images of an elegant teacup or teapot, safeguarded in the confines of a cabinet, and only reserved for special occasions. This familiar phrase, though casual in its usage, serves as a gateway to a history far more complex and enriching than its modest application suggests. This phrase, in fact, pays homage to the country of China, through which the world was introduced to the iconic blue and white porcelain (hereafter referred to as BWP), a style that has become synonymous with the term itself. Its origins, dating back to the Tang Dynasty (618-907 AD), reflect a fusion of Chinese innovation with cobalt blue pigments imported from Persia. As we delve into the history of Chinese BWP, we embark on a narrative journey that spans many centuries, navigates across oceans, and intertwines with the cultural fabric of numerous countries around the globe. This exploration reveals the intricate legacy behind BWP that has become synonymous with cultural significance and exchange. Moving geographically outwards from the source of origin, the journey of BWP throughout this dissertation will take us to the Middle East, Europe, and a special focus on the Mediterranean, specifically, the Maltese Islands. China’s history with porcelain boasts hundreds of years of experimentation, development and production. The earliest standard under-glazing technique was first employed during the Three Kingdoms period (222-280 AD), and its development continued for centuries to come (Li, 2015). Studies show that BWP was invented based directly on the technology derived from its porcelain predecessor: white under-glaze porcelain (Li et al.,2016). The production process of BWP begins at the kiln with the shaping of the porcelain clay into desired forms and meticulously applying designs using the cobalt oxide on the unfired, dry clay body. These pieces are left to air-dry in order to remove as much moisture as possible before undergoing the initial firing process. The first stage of firing hardens the clay at temperatures between 900 and 1000 degrees Celsius. After this stage, the porcelain is prepared for glazing, where, after cooling from the firing, the pieces are either dipped in or painted with a transparent glaze. Finally, the glazed wares are subjected to high temperatures of 1200 to 1400 degrees Celsius. This high temperature firing not only vitrifies the porcelain, making it strong and translucent, but also melts the glaze, allowing it to fuse with the cobalt pigment and create the vivid blue designs characteristic of BWP (Li et al., 2016). Initially, cobalt oxide is black in colour, and so, artists would paint the cobalt pigment onto the white porcelain body before it is glazed (Watt, 1979). Once the cobalt-painted porcelain is glazed, it is fired at a high temperature. During the firing process, the cobalt reacts with the glaze to create the familiar vibrant blue colour. Its ability to withstand the high firing temperatures without bleeding or blurring is what allows for the maintaining of different patterns and designs. The body of Chinese blue and white porcelain, known for its pure white colour, is primarily made from kaolin clay and China stone (Dillon, 1992). These two materials play a crucial role in the unique qualities of porcelain. Kaolin is a pure white clay, and due to its relatively high melting point, is the material which gives the porcelain its ability to undergo high firing temperatures without deforming. In other words, this capacity to withstand the firing process allows the porcelain to maintain its shape and structure. Overall, kaolin contributes to the ceramic’s characteristic whiteness and strength (Dias et al., 2013). China stone is a feldspathic rock that melts during the firing process to form a natural glass, binding the kaolin particles together. This vitrification process is what gives porcelain its characteristic smooth and glass-like surface (Dillon, 1992). Porcelain manufacture has been appropriately referred to as a 'pilgrim art' by notable scholars such as Robert Finlay, who properly coined the term with regards to its usage to refer to BWP. This is because the evolution of BWP involves the intricate exchange and adaptation of materials and decorations between China, the Middle East, and Europe from the 9th to the 18th century. Due to this, in this dissertation I have decided to narrate the journey of BWP through a chronological and linear lens of global history. I will first recount the creation, development, and production of BWP in its birthplace of China. In Chapter 2, I do this by providing its narrative across the Tang and Qing Dynasties; this works to highlight and bring out the advancements and proliferation of BWP and how its technical and visual design, as well as its perception and reception, change with time. BWP was propelled to fame and became a global phenomenon due to its presence abroad. Therefore, in Chapter 3, I discuss the presence of BWP in the major regions of the Middle East and Europe, as these regions were the largest consumers of BWP for most of its history. However, it is not just the porcelain’s presence that is important, however it is also their function and interactions which makes them culturally significant. Otherwise, BWP would not be known as the worldwide cultural artefact it is today. In Chapter 4, I take an even closer look at the aforementioned concept of worldwide cultural significance and interaction, by applying it to a more local context. The aim is to show how great BWP’s reach truly was and how it even made it to the Maltese Islands. This dissertation aims to reveal and provide a comprehensive understanding of the unique legacy of BWP, underscoring its role as a pivotal cultural artefact that bridges history, art, and global interactions. By understanding its past, one might gain valuable insights into how BWP has continually fostered cultural exchange and artistic innovation.