Kiss the pain : a study into pain tolerance, cognitive coping, performance psychology and running narratives during ultra trail running

Abstract

Recent research has garnered interest in the physiological and psychological demands of endurance running. Such events are characterized by traversing trails, particularly mountainous ones, over extreme distances. These races impose significant psychological and physical demands due to the stressors encountered enroute. In light of significant gaps in the current research literature, this thesis examines coping with the psychological demands involved in managing crises and performance catastrophes faced by ultra-trail runners. These challenges stem from the cumulative stressors encountered during extended periods of running in training and competition. Existing research has explored the benefits of coping strategies and psychological skills that ultra-trail runners use to manage stressors of semi-autonomous participation in such races. However, the majority of studies addressing stressors and coping strategies are conducted in laboratory settings and utilise heterogeneous participant samples, with only a minor percentage of participants comprising of ultra-trail runners. Consequently, data pertinent to ultra-trail running is often conflated with that of other sports and participant groups. This overlooks the cumulative effects of fatigue, both physical and mental, as well as pain, nutritional imbalances, and sleep deprivation, among other challenges, that runners endure during prolonged periods of running often spanning hours or days. Female ultra-trail runners are notably absent in this research landscape due to their under-representation in the sport. Furthermore, extant studies predominantly assess performance through objective metrics such as race position and completion time. Rarely do these studies consider the subjective satisfaction derived from participation in these races. Further, the mental health of ultra-runners is seldom addressed. While their extraordinary physical achievements of the successful athlete are often celebrated, there is limited understanding of the mental toll, struggles, and coping mechanisms related to failure, which is very prevalent in these races. Alternative sources of fulfilment and satisfaction beyond race times are often overlooked. This issue is particularly pronounced for female ultra-runners, who must also navigate societal norms even to engage in training. To address these deficiencies, this thesis first elucidates the strengths and limitations of existing studies through three empirical investigations. These studies focus on ecological data specific to ultra-trail runners, the experiences of female ultra-trail runners, and the perspectives of participants within a dominant narrative focused on success performance outcomes. It also highlights the detrimental effects of adhering to the belief that enduring pain yields the best results. It demonstrates how an athlete, committed to this narrative that pushes for success despite physical and mental decrements, found an alternative narrative to achieve success. Chapter 1 provides a comprehensive overview of running performance and the satisfaction derived by runners. It explores how runners manage exercise-induced pain to optimize their performance. The chapter discusses the management of exercise-induced pain through psychological skills such as mental toughness, resilience, and coping strategies. Additionally, it investigates the beliefs held by ultra-runners regarding pain during training and how these beliefs influence their willingness to endure pain during training and competition. Finally, the chapter considers how a lifestyle focused on performance metrics and striving for optimal performance can entrap athletes in a performance narrative, where the need to win, succeed, and perform overshadows all other aspects of their lives. Chapter 2 is a composed of two quantitative studies. Both studies explore the concept of pain threshold and examine how both ultra-runners and marathon runners, across different genders, employ coping strategies to manage exercise induced pain. Additionally, they investigate the beliefs that ultra-runners hold regarding pain during training and how these beliefs influence their willingness to endure pain during training and tolerate it while racing. The main findings indicated that ultra-marathon runners have a higher pain threshold and that they adopt more self-regulatory coping strategies than marathon runners. Our results also show that the pain experienced during training is positively related to the pain tolerated during a race. Further, the belief that pain while training is essential to improve, moderates this relationship. Chapter 3 examines alternative perceptions of race performance via the assessment of race satisfaction. This was achieved by adopting a mixed methods convergent methodology design whereby quantitative and qualitative data was obtained from participants competing in the Madeira Island Ultra Trail, 2021 and 2022 (MIUT). This study examines whether higher level psychological resources such as mental toughness and resilience, moderated the relationship between coping effectiveness and race satisfaction. Qualitative data was used to confirm the coping choices made by the athletes to manage pain and to explore their perceptions of race satisfaction. This study also investigated the coping effectiveness of the athletes ‘go to’ strategies to manage exercise induced pain at 11 different locations during the race. Results indicated a significant positive relationship between coping effectiveness and performance satisfaction at higher levels of mental toughness and resilience, with no such significant relationships at lower levels of mental toughness and resilience. Within-race analysis showed a linear trend in coping frequency over time for those satisfied with their performance, while a quadratic trend was observed for those less satisfied. Chapter 4 presents an evocative autoethnography conducted by the main author—an experienced ultra-trail runner. Using storytelling as a method within autoethnography, the chapter delves into the dominant performance narrative in elite sports. It shows how this narrative ensnares athletes into abiding by its constraints of winning and success. Diverging from the life and success expected of an athlete within this narrative may result in feelings of shame, margination, and perhaps mental health difficulties. The chapter illustrates by that by experiencing failure, the principal author—who has long championed the performance narrative—managed to liberate herself from its confines. She embraced alternative narratives that, while not centred on the “winning is everything” mindset, still resulted in successful performances. Importantly, these new perspectives fostered a healthier mental state. Chapter 5 concludes the thesis and summarises and discusses the major findings whilst giving a direction for future research.