Plastic recycling practices in the Kingdom of the Netherlands : contrasting PET usage in the Netherlands and Curaçao

Abstract

Plastic pollution is not merely an environmental issue—it is one of the most visible symptoms of structural failure in global material governance. Every piece of plastic ever created still exists unless incinerated. In countries with organised waste management systems, the problem often remains invisible to the public. However, this illusion of proper disposal masks a deeper crisis, particularly impacting our oceans and marine life. The urgency to address plastic pollution is underscored by its significant environmental, economic, and health implications. Small Island States (SIS) and island territories face disproportionate challenges in managing plastic waste—not due to local negligence, but due to their structural position in global trade systems. Limited space, diverse material types, and inadequate infrastructure are significant hurdles. For instance, islands often rely heavily on tourism, which exacerbates waste generation while simultaneously lacking the capacity to manage it effectively. This creates a pressing need for tailored waste management solutions. Yet, framing these challenges as merely local or logistical obscures a more fundamental reality: islands are currently positioned at the end of global value chains—acting as sinks for plastic waste rather than nodes in circular systems. Plastics encompass a wide range of synthetic polymers with diverse characteristics, applications, and potential for reuse as secondary raw materials. Despite the growing global discussion on plastic waste, little is known about 'polymer-specific mass flows' (Kawecki et al., 2018, p. 9875). Understanding these polymer-specific pathways, such as the widely recycled Polyethylene Terephthalate (PET), is essential for implementing effective mitigation measures. In particular, PET offers a useful lens to interrogate global circularity narratives— because it is often framed as a “success story” in recycling. PET plastics represent a substantial portion of global plastic waste, frequently used in beverage bottles and packaging due to their lightweight and durable nature (Benavides et al., 2018). PET is one of the most produced polymer types globally (Geyer et al., 2017), and its widespread use has made it among the most abundant polymers in marine plastic litter (Andrady, 2015; Iñiguez et al., 2018). Its main advantage compared to other polymers lies in the mature global recycling infrastructure, which enables secondary PET (rPET) to compete with primary material (Kuczenski and Geyer, 2010). As such, post-consumer PET recycling has a long tradition and stands as one of the most successful examples of polymer recycling (Sinha et al., 2010). However, its prevalence in single-use packaging remains a significant environmental concern, particularly in regions with inadequate recycling infrastructure. Addressing PET plastic waste is thus a critical component of broader efforts to mitigate plastic pollution. This contradiction—between PET’s global recyclability and its local unmanageability in island contexts—is at the heart of this thesis. This thesis aims to understand the material flows and policy drivers for PET plastic practices in Curaçao and the Netherlands. By conducting a comparative analysis between a small island and a high-income land connected country, this research illustrates how geography, policy, and power intersect to shape access to circular economies. By exploring these dynamics, the research seeks to develop targeted policy recommendations to support and enhance PET recycling within and beyond the Kingdom of the Netherlands. The selection of the Netherlands and Curaçao as comparative cases is grounded in their shared sovereignty within the Kingdom of the Netherlands. While they operate under a common constitutional framework, they possess distinct policy jurisdictions, creating both institutional alignment opportunities and governance asymmetries. This offers a rare opportunity to examine systemic divergence within a formally unified political structure. The research questions guiding this thesis are: 1. How does a comparison of PET recycling practices in Curaçao and the Netherlands reveal Curaçao’s waste management challenges? 2. How do waste policies in Curaçao and the Netherlands influence PET usage and recycling rates? 3. What policies could enhance PET recycling within the Kingdom of the Netherlands, particularly in Curaçao? These questions are rooted in a broader objective: to rethink PET waste not as a local failure of infrastructure, but as the outcome of global value chain dynamics that structurally exclude islands from reintegration loops. Understanding PET flows will provide a basis for effective waste reduction and recycling strategies. Developing targeted policy recommendations is essential for overcoming the unique logistical and resource constraints faced by Curaçao, ensuring that recycling efforts are feasible and effective. Evaluating the impact of Dutch waste policies on Curaçao will highlight policy gaps and propose necessary adjustments to support more inclusive and effective waste management practices. In doing so, the study contributes to a growing call for a justice-oriented circular economy—one that accounts for peripheries, not just productivity. The outcomes of this research could offer meaningful insights for practical application. By offering insights into the economic realities and systemic challenges of PET plastic management, the findings will inform policymakers, industry stakeholders, and environmental organisations. The study also contributes conceptually to sustainability science, highlighting how small territories can reveal critical blind spots in dominant circular economy models. This research not only contributes to academic discourse on sustainable waste management but also provides actionable recommendations to enhance recycling practices within the Kingdom of the Netherlands and beyond. This dissertation is organised into six main chapters. ● Chapter 2 presents a literature review, beginning with an introduction to plastic pollution, examining its environmental, social, and economic impacts, with a particular focus on its evolution over time. This chapter also discusses specific challenges and opportunities faced by islands in mitigating plastic pollution and explores recycling as part of an integrated approach. ● Chapter 3 outlines the methodology and research questions that guide this study, detailing the proposed research methods used to analyse PET recycling practices in Curaçao and the Netherlands, including a stakeholder analysis, infrastructure assessment, and policy review. ● Chapter 4 presents the results, critically comparing PET recycling practices in both regions. It evaluates the roles of stakeholders, recycling infrastructure, and PET material flows. ● Chapter 5 discusses the findings within the context of the literature, analysing broader policy frameworks and their implications for improving PET recycling practices. This chapter also provides recommendations for future research and practical applications for island-based recycling systems. ● Chapter 6 concludes the dissertation by summarising the key findings and offering policy recommendations, with a particular focus on enhancing PET recycling in small island economies like Curaçao. By reframing waste as a global systems challenge rather than a local management issue, this study contributes to a more inclusive, justice-oriented circular economy and offers a new lens for understanding the role of Small Island States in sustainability transitions. This study contributes to the field by making visible the structural exclusion of islands from global circular systems—even when they are formally connected to high-income governance structures. By comparing Curaçao and the Netherlands, it uncovers the institutional asymmetries that place island economies at a disadvantage. This perspective reframes PET recycling as a governance and equity issue, offering a foundation for more inclusive circular economy frameworks.